GAMES+AND+SIMULATIONS+AND+THEIR+RELATIONSHIPS+TO+LEARNING

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**Games and Simulations and Their Relationships to Learning** by Margaret E. Gredler

Presenters: Lidia Alvarez, Kristine Nocon, Jackie Wang

== = = =Introduction= Educational games and simulations allow students to apply their knowledge, skills, and strategies in a real-world application where students are assigned specific roles. The use of games and simulations for educational purposes stemmed from the use of war games in the 1600s. These war games were used to improve strategic planning of armies. Since the 1950s, the use of simulations has become a norm in both the business and medical world, and games and simulations are commonly found and used in the educational setting.

=The Difference between a Game and Simulatio**n**=
 * Games** are competitive exercises in which the objective is to win and players must apply subject matter or other relevant knowledge in an effort to advance in the exercise and win.
 * Simulations** are open-ended evolving situations with many interacting variables where the player is taking on a role, address issues, threats, or problems arising in the simulation, and experience the effects of their decisions, mimicking the real world.

Two concepts are important when analyzing games and simulations:
 * 1) Surface Structure: the (equipment) and observable mechanics of an exercise. - Computer game examples: drawing cards and clicking on an icon. - Simulation examples: scenario or set of data.
 * 2) Deep Structure: psychological mechanism operating in the exercise. - Is reflected in the nature of the interactions between the learner and the major tasks in the exercises.

Games
Games serve different types of purposes: 1. to practice or refine already-acquired knowledge and skills 2. to identify gaps or weaknesses in knowledge or skills 3. to serve as a review 4. to develop new relationships among concepts/principals 5. to act as an reward for hard work

Design Criteria: Well-designed games are challenging and interesting for the player while at the same time requiring the player to apply knowledge and skills. A well-designed game should include the following design criteria: 1. winning be based only by the application or demonstration of knowledge or skills 2. the game should address content objectives 3. the dynamics of the game should fit the level of the student (grade, cognitive ability, language constraints, etc.) 4. students should not lose points for giving wrong answers 5. games should not be a win-all or lose-all activity

Simulations[[image:Simulation_game_Hospital.jpg width="256" height="192" align="right"]]
Simulations are more complex evolving cases of a particular social or physical reality. Unlike games, the goal isn't to win, but to take on a bona fide role and address the problems in the simulation. Simulations have many factors and variables and come in many different forms.

__Experiential Simulations__ Experiential simulations mimic a real-world setting. Learners interact with real-world scenarios and experience the feeling, concerns, and questions that are associated with that particular role. There are three types of experiential simulations:
 * A Comparison of Experiential Simulations ||
 * Type || Characteristics || Example ||
 * **Social Process ** || Group exercise; contingencies for different actions are imbedded in the scenario and role descriptions || Group members’ are faced with unrelated bits of information. Their decisions affect each other’s decisions, so clear communication and listening is essential for survival. ||
 * **Diagnostic ** || Individual or group exercise; contingencies are based on desirable, most desirable, and dangerous decisions that may be made || Individual or teams engage in real-world patient-management situations in which they are presented a scenario and need to make decisions. Each decision is linked to prior and future decisions. ||
 * **Data Management ** || Group exercise; contingencies are imbedded in numerical or quantitative relationships among variables in the equation || Teams manage business or financial situations, such as in profitability, liquidity, or business volume. ||
 * *contingency: a possible but unlikely or unplanned event ||

__Symbolic Simulations__ In symbolic simulations, players act as the researcher or investigator in a situation. The events in the simulation is external to the learner. Although the learner is expected to interact with the symbolic simulations as a researcher or investigator, his or her role is not a functional component of the system. There are two types of symbolic simulations: [|PhET science simulations]
 * A Comparison of Symbolic Simulations ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Garamond-Book,serif; text-align: center;">Type || <span style="display: block; font-family: Garamond-Book,serif; text-align: center;">Description || <span style="display: block; font-family: Garamond-Book,serif; text-align: center;">Example ||
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Garamond-Book','serif';">Laboratory-research simulation ** || <span style="font-family: 'Garamond-Book','serif';">Individuals function as researchers; they investigate complex and evolving situations to make predictions or solve problems. || <span style="font-family: 'Garamond-Book','serif';">Individuals conduct specific experiments, document results, and conclusions such as in a science lab. ||
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Garamond-Book','serif';">System simulation ** || <span style="font-family: 'Garamond-Book','serif';">Individuals functions as //trouble-shooters//; they analyze, diagnose and correct operational problems in a system. || <span style="font-family: 'Garamond-Book','serif';">Individuals explain or predict events in a system and fix the problem, such as figuring out why the light bulb isn’t lighting in a parallel circuit. ||

=Technology-Based Exercises= At times, technology-based exercises are called simulations because they are problem-based activities that involve the use of simulated materials and experiences or virtual realities.

Simulated Materials
Instruction may involve the implementation of problem solving exercises with simulated materials. These exercises are not considered simulations in and of themselves, but rather the visuals presented to the students serve as a computer-based manipulative. This type of instruction includes a combination of: a) specific computer based tasks to be solved through experimentation b) paper and pencil exercises c) class discussions

Examples of Simulated Materials: After reviewing the properties of salt, fifth grade students can test out this [|Salts & Solubility Simulation]. In this simulation, students will add salt to water to watch it dissolve and disperse. Students can add or decrease the amount of water by using the faucets on the left hand side. If less water used, students will see low levels of Na and Cl concentration. Conversely, the more water used, the less dense the mixture is. This symbolic simulation gives a deeper understanding of what happens as salt dissolves in water.

Virtual Environments
Virtual environments are computer generated, three-dimensional representations of a setting in which students can respond in real time to the actions of all users. Many virtual environments include photographs that are combined to produce a navigable 360 degree panorama view of a specific environment. Headsets, earphones, and data gloves are required for total immersion systems while a joystick, mouse, and keyboard are needed for desktop virtual environments. The multiple components create a setting that is intended to draw the participant in to convey a specific presence and support the learning process.



[|EcoMUVE] is a new virtual environment based on middle school life science standards. The modules teach students about ecosystems and causal patterns through 3-D virtual worlds that have a look and feel that is similar to video games. A Multi-User Virtual Environment (MUVE) is a simulated world in which students have their own virtual avatar that can move in an environment that models a real-world setting. EcoMUVE allows students to work both individually and collaboratively through their avatar within the virtual environment.

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=Research in Games and Simulations=

Educational Games
Educational games make it possible for students to apply subject matter knowledge in a new context. Their use is most prevalently seen in elementary school, however research indicates that teacher and parent interest in their use varies in later grades. One way in which educational games can be incorporated into health and human service lessons for adolescents is through the Body Awareness Resource Network (BARN). BARN provides information, quizzes, and games for a variety of topics, one of which is AIDS and researchers provide evidence for the overall success of the game.

||= ** Risk Assessment ** ||= ** Maze Game ** || provided with information about HIV, AIDS prevention, AIDS and drugs, testing for AIDS, symptoms, and other facts concerning HIV/AIDS. ||= This portion of the software incorporates an interactive interview that describes various lifestyles and the relative probabilities of contracting HIV. ||= Students must move through several mazes by correctly answering questions on HIV/AIDS. If students know their facts, they can successfully get through the maze. ||
 * = **Tip of the Iceberg**
 * = In the first courseware segment, students are

Experiential Simulations

 * **Social-process simulations**use language to communicate and provide a variety of learning experiences. Computer programs and simulations can be effective means of practicing or gaining insight into real world situations. For example, learning disabled students were given a shopping in a supermarket computer application to help develop a deeper understanding of a real world setting. The experiential simulation showed aisles in a store with various goods to purchase. By using a joystick to navigate the aisles and select items in the store simulation, disabled students were found to be more successful, accurate, and familiar with completing shopping skill tasks in comparison to the control group.


 * **Diagnostic simulations** engage individuals in real world scenarios that require problem solving. Many exercises allow participants to play a professional role, and each role can be designed to meet the needs and abilities of the student. In a second grade simulation call[[image:message_in_a_fossil.png width="342" height="218" align="right"]]ed Message in a Fossil, students take the role of a paleontologist who is responsible for using tools to dig up, predict, then identify various fossil types. Researchers stated that students actively took the role of paleontologists in regard to how they were thinking and speaking by incorporating academic language such as collecting data and observations into their statements.


 * A major component of **data managements simulations**is the competition factor. Although competitive activities can encourage active participation, it is also important to keep in mind that an emphasis on winning can deter students from meaningful decision making in a simulation. Research has focused on student behavior to determine ways which student performance is influenced by a competitive disposition, group collaboration, students' self efficacy, and group cohesion. In one study, researchers examined 60 students from a management school to analyze factors that may have contributed to poor performance in a garment manufacturing company simulation. The students were separated into 20 teams and used the simulation in three hour time frames for a total of 24 cycles. Data determined that three main factors contributed to poor performance: making immediate calculations without setting goals or developing a model, simply waiting for problems to take place in the simulation then acting upon them as they arise, and lack of flexibility when encountering the need to alter plans. These key issues are all factors to consider prior to implementation of any data management simulation.

Symbolic Simulations
Symbolic simulations are sometimes referred as microworlds because they are "computer-based simulations of a type of work or decision making environment."


 * [[image:circuit-construction-kit-dc-screenshot.png width="270" height="202" align="left"]]Science Education simulations:**In science education, simulations are often viewed as a means for students to use discovery learning and usually are considered an alternative to expository instruction or hands-on laboratory exploration. In one study researchers examined two groups of students to analyze the benefits of science simulations. One group of students received a computer disk that contained simulations of electric circuits and activities. At the end of 6 weeks no significant differences were found between experimental and control group. Though data did show that both groups had some misconceptions, such as that a battery is a source of constant current. In a follow-up study 1 week later, students were assigned to build a real circuit. Data from this follow-up study showed that students who used the simulation to test their plans outperformed the control group, whose only opportunity to obtain feedback was in the physical trials of their circuits. The results indicate that the simulations served only as a feedback devise.


 * Combination of hypermedia with video images:** In other courses the combination of hypermedia with video images can also be used to create a virtual experience for students who are fulfilling roles as researchers. Examples include:


 * **A Virtual Field Trip**- Plant Collecting in Western New South Wales and Blue Ice: Focus on Antartica: In addition to collecting and analyzing[[image:Screen_shot_2011-07-12_at_8.51.15_PM.png width="290" height="157" align="right"]] data, student research wild life and weather topics.


 * **Tidepools**: Another example used in zoology is Tidepools. In this simulation students 1) __explore__ the ways in which a tidepool animal might respond to low oxygen in the low-tide period 2) __predic__t the responses of four real tidepool animals 3) obtain relevant information on each species by searching a virtual tidepool 4) are provided with a field notebook into which they many transfer pictures and text. There is also a visible talking tutor who introduces the task and explains how to proceed and what can be done.

In a survey, student responses to this type of learning were highly positive. Students also indicated that they learned more quickly and effectively when staff were present to discuss "emerging issues."

After completing the simulation, students perceived that Tidepools provided the same experiences as a real field trip. However, following an actual field trip, students perceptions changed significantly. The majority indicated that hypermedia experiences was not a substitute. Students indicated that hypermedia, properly designed, can serve as preparation for field study and help them use their time more effectively. This describes the importance of preparation and the role of technology within the classroom.


 * Psychology simulations:**A different type of student-researcher experience can be found in psychology simulations. In this type of simulation students generate hypotheses, set up conditions to test the hypotheses, obtain and interpret the collected data.One example is a software model where student researchers use the clocks and counter at the bottom of the computer screen to document the extent to which an infant attends to a particular stimulus. The screen portrays an infant's looking behavior, which includes both head and eye movements.


 * Troubleshooting:**An example of troubleshooting role in relations to a system is the research conducted with a computer-based simulation of an oil-fired marine power plant, Turbinia. Research indicates that it is important that theses types of simulations enable students to develop strategies that meet the demands of real-world situations. This simulation models approximately 100 components of the power plant and illustrates the representation of subsystems, components, and the physical and logical linkages. However, the physical fidelity is somewhat low. The simulation also has a tutoring system called Vyasa. The reason is because the purpose of the simulation is to teach diagnosing strategies and not to serve as a culminating exercise after the acquisition of basic knowledge of system faults and corrective actions. Results indicated that the less efficient students viewed more gauges and components than the efficient problem solvers. Students also implemented less effective strategies.

Experiential and symbolic simulations continue to be developed in different subject areas to meet different needs. One concern for simulation design is the general conclusion that there is no clear outcome in favor of these types of simulations. This does not refer to the nature of the deep structure of the exercise, instead it refers to discrete problems with simulated materials where the student is required to engage in "scientific discovery learning" to infer the relationship between input and outcome variables.

=Design and Research Issues=

Simulations can be either:
 * experiences that allow participants to apply their knowledge of a subject area to complex problems
 * devices that teach basic content

Studies have reported no differences between classes using computer-based exercises and control classes. Rather findings support that **methods**, not media, are the causal factors in learning.

From the perspective of design, the key issue for developers involves two questions: 1. Does the simulation meet the criteria for the type of exercise (symbolic or experiential)? 2. What is the purpose of the simulation?

Learning environments such as simulations environments should lead to knowledge that is qualitatively different from knowledge acquired from more traditional instruction. They must be developed carefully to accomplish an overall objective.Prior to student engagement in a simulation, explicit instruction should be implemented to model and teach the expected skills.

Gredler, M. E. (2003). Games and simulations and their relationships to learning. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), //Handbook of research for educational communications and technology// (2nd ed., pp. 571-581). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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